Agordat Massacre of 9th March 1975: An eyewitness account in Arabic by Faraj Hamid Faraj مـجـزرة أغردات

 

مـجـزرة أغردات 

يـوم ألاحـد ألاسـود التاسع من مارس عام ١٩٧٥م 

الموافق 26 صفـر 1395هـ 

 ِّ يرويها شاهد عيان ممن عايشوا أحداثها لحظة بلحظة

فـرج حـامـد فـرج

This day in Eritrean history, 9th of March 1975:

The killing of the Ethiopian spy, Tecleab Solomon, caused the massacre of about 400 persons in one evening in Agordat, on the 9th of March 1975. The Agordat massacre is simply one of the many massacres committed by the Ethiopian army or at times with the collaboration of fellow Eritreans; starting with the massacre of Ad Ibrihim in Barca in 1967. The Haile Sellasie regime started its scorched earth policy in 1967 particularly targeting Muslims and some of the worst crimes in the lowlands and Muslim villages in Akle Guzai was committed under his rule, under the direct supervision of Asrate Kassa, the then Governor of Eritrea. The Derg extended those massacres to all parts of Eritrea. We need to remind ourselves about those atrocities of Ethiopian occupation from time to time, to activate our memories that:

On that Agordat incident, I knew Tecleab and his family (not sure if they were from Eritrea or Tigray), rented one of the rooms in our compound for some years (when they came as immigrants), before they moved to another part of the town. His father and his elder brother were very decent people but he was rouge since his early years. He later ended up as a spy. He was regarded dangerous as he knew the town very well. A clandestine ELF cell in town lured him outside the town and was to deliver him to the ELF and was killed when he realized his fate and resisted. An army official who happened to visit the town by helicopter, ordered the massacre, as an act of revenge. Nobody realized that he was so important to the Ethiopian army.

Agordat Massacre of 9th March 1975: An eyewitness account in Arabic by Faraj Hamid Faraj

https://www.mediafire.com/file/h72wyzly8l8j8dv/Agordat+Massacre+by+Faraj+Hamid+Faraj+upd+2023.pdf/file

Ethiopia's first constitution of 1931

 Ethiopia's first constitution of 1931 

Can be downloaded at the link below:

https://www.mediafire.com/file/68e2kxxct740r5l/Ethiopia+Constitution+1923+EC.pdf/file

The TPLF's Communist Core: A 10-years Assessment at the Founding Congress of the Marxist Leninist League of Tigray (MMLT) 1985

The TPLF's Communist Core: A 10 years Assessment at the Founding Congress of the Marxist Leninist League of Tigray (MMLT) 1985 in Amharic

Can be downloaded at:

https://www.mediafire.com/file/fgdulvbdx1dmmkn/TPLF+Communism+Journey+1977+EC+Amharic.pdf/file

CIA's Assessment of Eritrea and the ELF 1967

 CIA's Assessment of Eritrea and the ELF 1967

Summary 

The insurgency in Eritrea with its separatist design is becoming an ever more pressing problem for the Ethiopian Government.  The Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) has its origin in the areas of and Empire's heterogeneity and colonial past. It is gathering strength, resources, determination, and sophistication. It is assisted. by military, financial, and political aid from Moslem and, likely, Communist states, and is bolstered by the passivity if not defections among Christian Eritreans ever more disenchanted with an uncertain and ineffectual regime. 

The Imperial Ethiopian Government (IEG) early fumbled its opportunity to create a basis of true integration in a community of economic and political interest. Instead, the IEGs technique has unvaryingly been one of bribery, intrigue, and, when in doubt, coercion. Thus; Ethiopian ineptness and insensitivity, growing accord among Moslems involved in forging an Eritrean future, Christian disillusion, and foreign meddling, all compound to threaten the IEG's capacity to maintain its hold. 

Unless major changes occur in the Eritrean equation in the relatively near future, there is a distinct possibility of a loss of Eritrea to Ethiopia and of Kagnew Station to the United States, of acceleration beyond the limits of IBG control of the centrifugal forces elsewhere in Ethiopia, and of a major and adverse shift in the balance of power and influence in the Red Sea Basin. 

United States policy must take these ineluctable elements into full consideration, including the relatively little room for maneuvering we have between the IEG and the Eritrean Liberation Front, and the few resources we can effectively bring to bear. Within that frame, there are actions that we can take, first to reduce our immediate vulnerability in Eritrea and, second, to move the IEG away from an overly centralized approach to a more enlightened and effective one which will help close the now-growing breach.

The full report can be downloaded from the link below:

https://www.mediafire.com/file/vedkfb5g295xcxv/CIA+Assessment+of+Eritrea+and+ELF_1967.pdf/file

The Monitoring, Verification & Compliance Mechanism for CoHA between the FDR of Ethiopia and the TPLF

 

 THE MONITORING, VERIFICATION, AND COMPLIANCE MECHANISM OF The Permanent CoHA between the FDRE and the TPLF

https://www.mediafire.com/file/nvwazphczfdu2dv/Terms+for+monitoring+and+verification_pdf.pdf/file

Sudan's Political Framework Agreement Dec 2022 مشروع الإتفاق السياسي الإطاري

 Sudan's Political Framework Agreement between civilian components and the military signed on December 5, 2022   The English version:

https://www.mediafire.com/file/l8f9ypv3s5j3u85/Sudan+Framework_Agreement_Dec+5__2022.pdf/file

The Arabic version:                      مشروع الإتفاق السياسي الإطاري

https://www.mediafire.com/file/vl1s635he8d4fyr/Sudan+framework+agreement+Arabic+doc.pdf/file

THE CONTESTED LEGITIMACY OF ERITREAN STATEHOOD: THE EFFECTS OF ARAB INTERVENTION, (1941-1993) A 2003 MSC. Thesis

 

THE CONTESTED LEGITIMACY OF ERITREAN STATEHOOD: THE EFFECTS OF ARAB INTERVENTION, (1941-1993)  A 2003 MSC. Thesis By HABTOM ZERAI GHIRMAI

Abstract 

This report has contributed to understanding the diplomatic history of Eritrea‘s war of independence. Its primary purpose is to assess the genesis and effects of Arab interventionist policies in Eritrea critically. The underlying arguments are: Arab intervention was based on a flawed perception of Eritrea as an Arab nation, which could rather be explained in light of their ‗national interests across the spectrum of ideological, political, and security concerns. Second, that intervention was not critical to the victory of this largely self-reliant struggle. This work has also probed into the core of the matter to piece together a rough balance sheet of the interventions to show that they were even detrimental to the struggle. Though it has put much emphasis on the diplomatic circumstance that surrounds the struggle, as the formative years of the struggle had contributed to that end, as a way of introduction, this academic inquiry has started two decades before the start of the armed struggle, stretching the time frame from 1941 to 1993. The year 1941 marks the ending of Italian colonial rule and the start of the British Military Administration, and 1993 signifies the re-birth of the country as a legitimate sovereign by its admission to the United Nations. 

The Thesis can be downloaded at:

https://www.mediafire.com/file/1928j34yvqqo14w/Eritrea_Effects-arab-intervention-1941-1993.pdf/file

WHY REBELS COLLIDE: FACTIONALISM AND FRAGMENTATION IN AFRICAN INSURGENCIES PhD Thesis

 

WHY REBELS COLLIDE: FACTIONALISM AND FRAGMENTATION IN AFRICAN INSURGENCIES, a 2011 Ph.D. dissertation by Michael H. Woldemariam 

Abstract 

A common feature of modern civil wars is the tendency of rebel organizations to factionalize and fragment. Yet how can we explain patterns of factionalism and fragmentation in civil wars? How do normal, private disagreements within rebel organizations become full-fledged disputes that lead to a complete collapse of cooperation in war? Given the importance of rebel factionalism and fragmentation to civil wars' scale, duration, and outcomes, such questions warrant careful consideration. This dissertation uses case studies of seven Ethiopian rebel organizations nested within a statistical analysis of an original dataset of Ethiopia’s civil wars to develop an argument about the dynamics of factionalism and fragmentation within rebel organizations. The argument is then tested more broadly, using statistical data analysis on militant organizations in the Middle East. The project relies on over two years of fieldwork in Ethiopia, Somaliland, and African refugee communities in Europe and North America.

The evidence suggests that rebel factionalism and fragmentation are caused by territorial gains and losses, as battlefield shifts alter the incentives that rebel elites have to cooperate with one another. Counter-intuitively, territorial stalemate promotes cohesion and is the only sustainable basis for organizational stability in war. The core argument, along with several corollaries, contributes to a small but growing literature on the internal politics of rebel organizations and offers lessons for policymakers who seek to influence the dynamics of today’s civil wars.

The thesis can be downloaded at: 

https://www.mediafire.com/file/nrcfzjevr69q3no/WHY+REBELS+COLLIDE_FACTIONALISM+AND+FRAGMENTATION.pdf/file

البعثة التعليمية الأزهرية في إريتريا ١٩٥٢ الى ١٩٦٦ ، دراسة وثائقية Al-Azhar Educational Mission in Eritrea:1952-1966

 

 

 

البعثة التعليمية الأزهرية في إريتريا ١٩٥٢ الى ١٩٦٦ ، دراسة وثائقية

Al-Azhar Educational Mission in Eritrea (1952-1966)

Documentary study

This study deals with the religious, social and cultural role played by the ‘Al-Azhar Educational Mission’ sent to Eritrea 1952 – 1966, and it also highlights the role played by Al-Azhar in teaching Eritrean students at the Islamic Institute in Asmara which was the only one of its kind in East Africa.

https://www.mediafire.com/file/dqb03paea0e9k9m/البعثة+التعليمية+الأزهرية+في+إريتريا+١٩٥٢+الى++Al+Azhar+Educational+Mission+1952+-1966.pdf/file

Assessing the Peace Accord for Tigray November 2022

 

Assessing the Peace Accord for Tigray 

By Concerned Pan-African Scholars 26 November 2022

Overview 

1. This memorandum outlines the background, process, and outcomes of the negotiations between the delegations of the Federal Government of Ethiopia (FGE) and the leadership of the Tigray region (representatives of the Tigray People’s Liberation Front, TPLF, and the people of Tigray), under the auspices of the African Union High-Level Panel, between 24 October and 12 November 2022. Defying pessimistic expectations, the parties reached an agreement in Pretoria, augmented in Nairobi. They have succeeded in ending active hostilities between the two. If the deals hold, this can relieve the humanitarian catastrophe and begin the political dialogue.

The document can be downloaded at the link below:

https://www.mediafire.com/file/0am87px2bfgmj42/Tigray+Peace+deal-Assessment.pdf/file

LACK OF POLITICAL SPACE OF THE ERITREAN DIASPORA IN THE ARAB GULF AND SUDAN

 

THE LACK OF POLITICAL SPACE OF THE ERITREAN DIASPORA IN THE ARAB GULF AND SUDAN: TORN BETWEEN AN AUTOCRATIC HOME AND AUTHORITARIAN HOSTS by Nicole Hirt and Abdulkader Saleh Mohammad, 2018

Abstract

One-third of Eritrea's citizens live in exile, and their government uses coercion, intimidation, and manipulation of patriotism to maintain financial flows from the diaspora through a rehabilitation tax and by delegating welfare responsibilities to its citizens abroad. Over one million Eritreans reside in Arab states, yet, we know little about their attitudes toward the homeland regime. Contrary to their compatriots in Europe and North America, they do not have political asylum and depend on work contracts for residence permits. This makes them vulnerable to the demands of transnational Eritrean institutions, which issue vital documents in exchange for the fulfillment of financial obligations. The diasporic political space is doubly restricted since authoritarian host states neither permit political activities nor do they provide reliable protection from the Eritrean regime. This article explores the extent to which Eritreans in the Arab Gulf and Sudan can avert coercion by their home government and how these states disempower diasporic contention.

https://www.mediafire.com/file/soexkjlh7ivetej/Eritrea_Lack_of_Political_Space.pdf/file

European Divergent Approaches to Protection Claims Based on the Eritrean Military/National Service Program

 

An article on European Divergent Approaches to Protection Claims Based on the Eritrean Military/National Service Program

In: International Community Law Review Author: Sara Palacios-Arapiles Date: 08 Aug 2022

https://brill.com/view/journals/iclr/24/4/article-p335_4.xml?language=en

Abstract

Drawing on data from the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, and Switzerland, this article shows that during the process of interpreting the refugee definition and applying it to the context of the Military/National Service Programme (MNSP), the definition is subject to various interpretations and applications. As a result, the treatment of similarly situated Eritrean asylum applications differs from one country to another. The article illustrates that asylum courts from the selected jurisdictions sideline relevant factors that classify the MNSP as slavery by failing to engage normatively with the international law definition of slavery. The findings suggest that a defective incorporation of international legal instruments in the assessment of protection claims based on slavery contributes to conflicting interpretations and applications of the refugee definition and can unduly de-legitimise Eritrean applications for refugee status as ‘unwanted migrants’.

Obituary: Dr. Hashim Gamal A-Din A-Shami

Obituary: Dr. Hashim Gamal A-Din A-Shami

Dr. Hashim Gamal A-Din A-Shami passed away in Istanbul, Turkey, where he was taking medical treatment on Monday, August 1, 2022. Dr. Hashim was born in the Red Sea coastal city of Tio, Eritrea, in 1948, to his father, Sheikh Gamal A-Din Ibrahim Khalil, and mother, Handia Humo Motala.

A veteran UN official and a writer, Dr. Hashim was a well-versed intellectual interested in peoples' causes in the region and beyond. He was interested in the history and studies of East Africa and the Southern Arabian Peninsula. Dr. A-Shami was a man of high integrity, social, kind, and generous. Though born in Eritrea, he felt he belonged to all Afar in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. His most significant contribution to the Afar was his book, 'Al Manhal: The Source in the History and Narratives of the Afar (Danakil),' which was issued in 1991 in Arabic with a second edition in 1996. The book is about 750 pages. The book was translated to Amharic, with additions to the Arabic version in 2007 with the title ዓፋር (ደንከል) ታሪክና መረጃ አርክ ምንጭ. The book was translated to English in 2018.

The book presents analytical and documentary accounts of Afar (Danakil/Adal) in relations with neighboring peoples around the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. It includes over 30 colored maps and copies of 19 fundamental conventions, protocols, treaties, and pacts between Afar (Danakil, Adal) Sultanates and Sheikhdoms with colonial powers (Italy and France).

​Moreover, it covers various dimensions: Afar political history; structure of the Afar Sultanates; degree of decentralization; religious aspects from pre-Christianity and pre-Islamic ages up to date (2017); social systems; the pedigree of Afar tribes; Afar social and economic life according to the categories for the period 1800-1960; Afar socio-civilizational manifestations from 600 BC to 10 AD which includes Afar ports, cities and ways of living, particularly in Afar coastal belt from the north of Dahlak Archipelago to Zeila; the presence of the Ottoman empire over very few points of the Afar coast during 1647-1866; and the Egyptian existence in some of the Afar mentioned ports up to 1885.

​Dr. Hashim descended from an Islamic religious family, and his grandfather was an Islamic scholar who made Tio a spiritual center. After completing elementary and secondary school, Dr. Hashim traveled to Egypt, where he got his bachelor’s degree in agricultural economics and agronomy from Cairo High Polytechnic Institute in 1970 with outstanding results and was the first in his batch. After returning from Cairo, managed the Awsa informal cooperative, a semi-mechanized farm of 25,000 hectares in the lower Awash Valley. He got his MSc degree at Arizona State University with honors in Agricultural Economics in 1974 and completed his Ph.D. studies in Economics at Wisconsin University in 1979. 

From 1980 to 1985, he worked as an Economist for the oil, gas, water, agriculture, and desalination sectors in the Ministry of Planning in Saudi Arabia, where he contributed substantially to the 5-year development plan in the kingdom. He joined United Nations (UN) 's FAO as an economist based in Rome and was a Regional officer for Near East and North Africa, 1985-1989.

Dr. Hashim was appointed Chief Technical Advisor, Senior Planning Economist, and Team Leader at the United Nations Department of Social Affairs from 1989 to 1996. He was FAO representative in Nigeria and Yemen 1996-2008. During his term in Nigeria, he also engaged and contributed to the Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS). During his tenure in the United Nations, he met many leaders in the countries he worked and visited which gave him an in-depth knowledge of Horn of Africa, in particular and Africa and the Middle East. He retired in 2008. Dr. Hashim served as Development Adviser to the Government of Djibouti from 2009-2014.

While studying at the university in Egypt, Dr. Hashim accompanied Sultan Ali Mirah Hanafi in his meetings with Egyptian officials in 1967. He witnessed an undeclared agreement between Egypt (represented in the person of Mr. Mohammed Fayek, Head of the Department of African Affairs in the Egyptian Presidency) and Afar leader Ali Arif Burhan and Sultan Ali Mirah Hanfari. Egypt agreed to the independence of Djibouti for the first time. Egypt also convinced other Arab countries to follow suit. Previously Egypt supported the accession of Djibouti to Somalia. As it is well known that both Somalia and Ethiopia claimed Djibouti. The opinion of the Sultan was if Djibouti was not independent, there might be a war between Ethiopia and Somalia on the issue. Just before the independence of Djibouti, the Government of the Republic of Somalia, particularly the President, Mr. Mohamed Siad Barre, approved it. Thus, Djibouti obtained its independence without obstacles. Sultan Ali Mirah Hanfari got scholarships to Afar students from Egypt in 1967. Egypt also provided a radio broadcast in the Afar language, where Dr. Hashim worked for a short while.

As a personal note, Dr. Akrem Ali Altom, introduced to Dr. Hashim in Egypt, and we became close friends from the first day. He was a mentor, and I have learned many issues from him pertaining to the Afar people and the region's political dynamics. He not only encouraged me to author a book about Eritrea but kept pushing me till I finished it, "The Dynamics of the unfinished African Dream: Ancient Times to 1968". He introduced me to many valuable references. He also contributed substantially to the chapter about the ancient history of Eritrea but did not permit me to acknowledge that in the book. I spoke to him regularly. Almost at least once a week, we exchanged views on regional developments. He will be deeply missed.

Dr. Hashim is survived by two sons, two daughters, and several grandchildren.

Highlights from the Curriculum Vitae of Dr. Hashim Gamal A-Din A-Shami written in 2011

EXPERIENCE: Over 31 years of actual experience (excluding post-graduate time):

      -        Assistant Terminal Superintendent, Mobil Oil, (Ethiopia).

-                General Manager of an agricultural enterprises with semi mechanized 25000 hectares in Ethiopia; (Awash valley) (1971-1973); His Highness the late Sultan Ali Mirah,  was the chairman of the entity in subject.

-        Also worked an adviser to Sultan Ali Mirah 1971-1973.

-        5 ½ years as a Senior Economist (Planner), Natural Resources Department (water, desalination, agriculture, oil and gas), the Ministry of Planning in Saudi Arabia (1980- 1985);

-        2 ½ years as Regional Adviser for the Near East and North Africa Region (training in planning) in Rome, at FAQ Headquarters (1985-1988)·

-        6 ½ years as a Senior Economist/Planner to the Ministry of Planning starting from Jan.4, 1988, under United Nation Department for Economic and Social Affairs (N.Y) UNDESA, FAO and UNDP joint project under UNDESA

      -        July I, 1994, to May 1996 as a Chief Technical Adviser and Team Leader in UNDESA (United

            Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, N.Y.) project in Saudi Arabia, Grade D-1;

      -        June 1, 1996, to July 11, 2002 FAO Representative in Nigeria,

Grade 0-1

 

-        June 1,1996 to July 11 2002 FAQ Representative (FOCAL POINT) to The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). It is a regional group of 15 West African Countries founded on 28 May 1975. FA0 has a Regional Office in Accra, Ghana, that covers the same countries and more

 

-        July 12, 2002 to October 31^st , 2008, FAQ Representative in Yemen, Grade D-1;

      -        Acted several times as UN Resident Coordinator in Nigeria and Yemen. Also, as a Dean of The UN Group due to a long stay in both countries

     -        November 1, 2008, Retired

    -        November 2008 - to 2011: Advisor to the Gov. of Djibouti also as consultant in economics

    -        Lectured on development planning (concepts and techniques) at the Arab Planning Institute (API), Kuwait; the Institute of National Planning (INP), Cairo; Arizona State University (ASU), USA, etc. These tasks were undertaken during his tenure with UNDESA and FAO as part of assignments. His counterparts in the aforementioned Institutes were Professor Abdul Aziz Ibrahim at INP; Professor Abdulla at API and Professor Philip Stiles at ASU. He had drafted and/or contributed in drafting operational plans for oil, gas, water, desalination and agriculture for a two-consecutive, Five-year development plans for Saudi Arabia 

-        Also assumed responsibility as a member of Financial Ceiling Committee in two Mid-Term Plans as well as member of Energy Committee during 5th Development Plan.

 

 Honours: 

·       Ideal student for 1969, Egypt (Faculty level).

·       B.Sc. Grade: Excellent and ranked 1^st out of classes for whole academic period 1966- 1970

·       M.Sc. Grade 4.00 out of 4.00, Straight A at Arizona State University, Tempe, USA (1973-1974)

·       Ph.D. Dissertation, Grade=A, University of Wisconsin - Madison, USA.

·       In 1972 granted Honorary Citizenship of USA

            by the City Government of Lubbock Texas ,USA. This took place

            during a visit on the invitation by the US State Department. Visited

           Chamber of Commerce’s bureaus, agricultural production units,

            agro-industries, irrigation schemes and commodity markets in the

            following states: W.D.C., Florida, Oklahoma, Texas, Arizona,

       California, Illinois, N.Y., and Puerto Rico.

·       In June 1986, received from Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA, a plaque for special recognition for outstanding services in international development.

·       In 1994, received from the UNDP in collaboration with the concerned Government department of the Royal Kingdom of Saudi Arabia a plaque for special appreciation for distinguished contribution in the training of the Saudi nationals through a UNDP/UNDESA project

 

PUBLICATIONS:

•       The Impact of Cotton on the Economic Development of Egypt, 1952-1976

 

Published June 1980, Publisher: University Micro-films International 3000 ZEEB Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106 USA. ORDER No. 8007539 PP.358 (Ph. D) DISSERTATION. Among other things analysis/evaluation were based on three econometric models. Also, two mathematical models were developed (i) one for measurement of resources transfer from cotton sub-sector to the rest of economy and vice-versa and (ii) a model for import substitution efficiency measure for the infant industry (cotton-based industry).

 

Over the period of the study productivities of the whole Egyptian economy, industry, cotton-based industry, and oil sector were calculated for comparative analysis. Also, income distribution and employment generation analyses were made.

 

A DOZEN OF PUBLICATIONS IN ECONOMNIC AND FINANCIAL STUDIES

 

Most of these were issued by sponsoring institutions, organizations, and employers. The ownership of publications belongs to the sponsors.

 

PERIODICAL REPORTS: 

Quarterly report on petroleum and other energy sources, jointly prepared by A-Shami and Dr. Khalil Mohamed Zahr, Senior Energy Adviser, Ministry of planning (MOP), Saudi Arabia, about 5-15 pages; each issue for the period 1982-1984 (in Arabic and English). Series of reports were written - jointly with Dr. Zahr on Energy (particularly oil related) during 1988-1994. Ownership of These reports are belonged to MOP.

 

DEVELOPMENT OF QUANTITATIVE TOOLS FOR POLICY ANALYSIS:

 Contribution in development of L.T. Energy Model (world demand/supply for energy including oil) for Saudi Arabia done in collaboration of UNDESA and the Institute of Statistics Norway - Oslo. 

"A Medium-Term Oil Model" jointly developed by Dr. Khalil Zahr, Senior Energy Advisor, UNDESA and A-Shami for the Ministry of Planning of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia prepared under the project SAU/94/001 "Support for Economic Planning, Modeling and MIS Development", March 1996. It was meant to complement the system of macro-economic Models. The Model was conceptualized, specified, designed and estimated by Zahr and A-Shami while its programming and implementation on the TROLL system was undertaken by the Institute of Statistics Norway, Oslo, under leadership of Professor Olav Berjkholt 

Updating and enhancement of a Food Demand Model for planning purpose  

Travels: visited most of European countries, most of West Africa, East African countries,

South Africa, 18 Arab countries, Turkey, UK and USA (Half of its States, Puerto Rico and Virgin Island) 

Conferences & Seminars: Attended a large number of workshops, seminars and conferences mainly pertinent to Socio-Economic Development and a few as observer on Conflict Resolution.  

Hobby: Reading about development issues and Modern Arab and East African history.

 

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Mohamed Kheir Omer